Achievement Gap or Opportunity Gap? Implications of High-Stakes Testing on African American and Latina(o) Students With Dis/Abilities

• In Event: Critical Race Analysis of Internalized Racism Across the K–12 Educational Pipeline

Abstract

Problem
Nearly ten years ago, No Child Left Behind (NCLB) was passed, in part, to improve the academic outcomes of Students of Color in Special Education and rectify their inequitable educational opportunities. Today, schools are required to achieve a minimum level of proficiency for all students, including subgroups of students according to race, economic status, English language learner status, and student ability. While increased accountability for students in special education was a seeming advancement in education policy, there have been few academic improvements for subgroups of students (Lee, 2006). Additionally, scholars have noted that high-stakes testing and assigning penalties to schools may actually be undermining the learning of students (Kane & Staiger, 2003; Meier, Kohn, Darling-Hammond, Sizer & Wood 2004).
Many African American and Latina(o) students in special education are unfairly punished with an inadequate education, as they are more likely to attend schools that are under-funded, have a high number of inexperienced and un-credentialed teachers, and have few material resources (Osher, Woodruff & Sims, 2002). This context, along with stigmas associated with the label dis/Abled can exacerbate feelings of intellectual inferiority for Students of Color in special education. Through classroom observations and qualitative interviews, this study examines how NCLB and high stakes exams, specifically the California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE), has impacted the academic self-perceptions of Students of Color in special education.

Theoretical Framework
In addition to the theoretical lenses of CRT and internalized racism, which are noted above, Disability Studies is used in this study. Disability Studies challenges deficit perspectives of people with dis/Abilities by rejecting the perception that a dis/Ability is a function of impairment whereby the person given the label of dis/Ability must be “fixed” or “cured”.

Methodology and Data Sources
This study was set at a large, urban, Title I. public high school that serves approximately 2,000 students. Because the CAHSEE was designed to ensure all seniors graduate with a minimal level of achievement, and students in special education were the most recent group of students required to pass the exam, I focused solely on the experiences and perceptions of 12th grade students in Special Day Classes (SDC). Thirty six classroom observations of CAHSEE English language arts and mathematics courses were conducted. In addition, all 18 African American and Latino 12th grade students in SDC participated in focus groups and individual interviews.

Results
The data from this study revealed that Students of Color with Disabilities (1) lacked access to appropriate curriculum and instruction, (2) lacked access to accommodations and modifications which are legally required, and (3) internalized racism and ablelism, which caused many students to experience a sense of intellectual inferiority. Collectively, these factors severely limited the students’ abilities to pass the CAHSEE.

Scientific Importance
This study reveals that current accountability models often exacerbate inequality across racial lines, impacting the academic identities of African American and Latina(o) Students with dis/Abilities. Given these findings, it is imperative that educational policies address the ways in which current policy perpetuates low achievement and reinforces negative self-perceptions.

Author

• Adai Abebe Tefera, Arizona State University