Applying Learning Progressions to Assessment Design

• In Event: Building and Validating Cognitively Based, Technology-Enhanced English Language Arts Assessments

Abstract

The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) for English Language Arts/Literacy specify skills and understandings that students should demonstrate as they progress through grades K-12, aiming toward college and career readiness (NGA & CCSSO, 2010). The development of learning progressions, which specify qualitative shifts that occur as students reach higher levels of sophistication in particular cognitive targets over time, can improve measurement of student progress. As a part of the Cognitively-Based Assessment of, for, and as Learning (CBAL) initiative, we have developed a series of learning progressions for two competencies emphasized in the CCSS: argumentation and research/inquiry. Here, we describe how learning progressions can support the design of empirically based assessments that provide evidence of students’ skills, which can support teaching and learning.

Argumentation Learning Progressions
Based on cognitive and learning sciences research in the domain (e.g., Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987; Graham & Perin, 2007; Hayes & Flower, 1980; Kuhn, 1991), we have developed learning progressions describing the development of four strands of argumentation skills: making appeals for the intended audience, taking a position, developing reasons and evidence, and organizing and presenting a case logically. Evidence suggests that students only gradually develop full control over all elements of a well-structured argument. For instance, researchers found that most students can state an opinion and offer at least one reason for it at a fairly early age (e.g., McCann, 1989). Other skills, such as providing evidence, presenting arguments from both sides and refuting opposing viewpoints, might not develop before adulthood unless instruction or scaffolding is provided (Ferretti, MacArthur, & Dowdy, 2000; Knudson, 1992; Nussbaum & Kardash, 2005).
Research/Inquiry Learning Progressions
To develop learning progressions of students’ research and inquiry skills, we have drawn on studies of inquiry-based learning (de Jong, 2006; Eagleton & Guinee, 2002; White & Frederiksen, 1998), multiple documents comprehension (Goldman et al., 2011; Rouet, 2006), and “new literacies” for reading in digital environments (Coiro & Dobler, 2007; Leu, Kinzer, Coiro, & Kammack, 2004). These progressions characterize students’ development in several skills: generating focused questions; locating, citing, and evaluating information sources; reconciling multiple perspectives; and synthesizing information into a coherent written explanation. Students of all ages vary considerably in their ability to deploy such skills (e.g., Walraven, Brand-Gruwel, Boshuizen, 2008), and many are unprepared for the genres of research-based writing activities required in college (Burstein et al., 2013).

Implications for Assessment Design
Assessments should elicit evidence of the level of students’ understanding. Toward this goal, we have developed assessment items that are aligned to the progressions, from preliminary to advanced levels. The poster will provide example items from both sets of progressions to illustrate how progressions support item development. For example, for the “reasons and evidence” progression, a preliminary level item asks students to give a reason for a claim, while an intermediate item might require evaluating others’ arguments by writing a critique. Evidence from pilot data supports the notion that learning progressions yield items that reliably assess students’ skills in these domains at a range of developmental levels.

Authors

• Yi Song, Educational Testing Service

• Jesse R. Sparks, Educational Testing Service

• Mary E. Fowles, ETS