Framing the Teaching of Academic Language to English Learners: A Delphi Study of Expert Consensus

• In Event: Learning to Swim on a Sidewalk? Practice-Based Education for Teachers of Language Learners

Abstract

Purpose
As the English learner (EL) population in schools has increased, so has the need for improving instruction to meet their needs. Academic language (AL) development forms a foundation for learning across all disciplines and is especially important with the implementation of the Common Core State, and Next Generation Science, Standards. However, there has been little consensus on the practices that are most effective for developing ELs’ AL.
Even those practices identified as effective for developing ELs’ AL, lack the level of articulation necessary to allow teachers to enact them in dynamic ways at the appropriate level for their students (O’Hara et al, 2013). We conducted a study to answer the question: Which instructional practices are most essential and highest leverage for promoting the AL development of adolescent ELs across disciplines?
Theoretical Framework
The framework for this study draws on literatures on: academic language (Schleppegrell, 2004; Swartz, 2001; Zwiers, 2008); core practices for content area teaching (Ball et al., 2009; Grossman et al., 2009; Kazemi et al., 2009; Lampert, 2010); and essential practices for the AL development of ELs (Casteel & Ballantyne, 2010; Garcia & Kleifgen, 2010; Goldenberg, 2008; Samson & Collins, 2012; Vogt, 2009).
Methods
To examine our research question, we used a Delphi technique (Osborne et al. 2003). This methodology uses systematic solicitation and collection of judgments and justifications from experts. In preparation for the Delphi process, we performed an exhaustive review of the research to identify a set of instructional practices for developing AL. We identified 25 expert scholars and practitioners in the field. Our Delphi panel study consisted of two rounds of survey completion and analysis and a follow-up focus group session. In an attempt to move beyond identifying a broad set of practices, and in order to identify the most essential practices,
Results
The final results of this Delphi panel suggest that there are three essential, high leverage practices for the development of AL of adolescent ELs: Fostering Academic Interactions, Fortifying Academic Output, and Using Text to Develop Academic Language. Additional findings from this study suggest that these practices alone they do not get to the core of AL teaching. Effective AL teachers enact a set of dynamic instructional moves in support of these practices: Modeling AL, Clarifying AL, and Guiding AL Learning. In addition these teachers negotiate these moves during instruction in the action of AL teaching. These teachers design instruction with a comprehensive vision of AL development in mind. Using the results of the study we generated three initial combinations of practices that we call essential practice frames, which we describe in detail in the paper.
Scholarly Significance
In addition to identifying a set of essential practices for the AL development of ELs, this study expands the research literature on core teaching practices (e.g., Grossman et al., 2009; Lampert, 2010; Windshitl et al., 2009). Ultimately, our findings reinforce the need to identify essential, high leverage practices, and the dynamic instructional moves needed to enact them, which may be essential for changing teacher practice.

Authors

• Susan O'Hara, University of California - Davis

• Robert Pritchard, California State University - Sacramento

• Jeff Zwiers, Stanford University