Motivation and Social Cognitive Theory

• In Event: Motivation Theory Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow: Reflections of Founders and Descendants

Abstract

Social cognitive theory emphasizes the importance of the social environment in human development and education. The original impetus for development of the theory came from Bandura’s 1960s studies on modeling (Rosenthal & Bandura, 1978). Contrary to predictions of behavior theories, modeling studies showed that learning occurred without performance and reinforcement.
Motivation always has played a central role in social cognitive theory. Bandura initially stated that for observational learning to occur, individuals must attend to the model, retain what the model did, be able to produce the modeled behavior, and be motivated to do so (Rosenthal & Bandura, 1978). Further, several model characteristics affect observers’ motivation (e.g., perceived competence, model status, perceived similarity to models). Broadly, motivation depends on expected positive consequences for performing modeled actions. These expectancies (cognitive beliefs) develop through social interactions.
Bandura (1986) broadened the theory’s scope by postulating reciprocal interactions between personal, behavioral, and environmental variables. Cognitive motivational beliefs (personal variables) influence behaviors and environments and are affected by them. In 1977, Bandura introduced the construct of self-efficacy, which he defined as perceived capabilities to learn or perform actions at designated levels. Bandura (1997) discussed the many ways in which individuals’ self-efficacy beliefs can affect their choices, persistence, and effort at many different kinds of activities.
Current social cognitive theory continues to focus on self-efficacy as a construct of great importance to motivation and achievement, but also views motivation as involving goal-directed behaviors instigated and sustained by outcome expectations, values, and self-efficacy (Schunk, 2012). Goals that are proximal, specific, and challenging but attainable, exert strong motivational effects. Outcome expectations are beliefs about the anticipated outcomes of actions (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2006). People act in ways they believe will be successful and attend to models who teach them skills. Value refers to the perceived importance of behavior. People act to bring about what they deem to be important. As students observe their learning progress their self-efficacy and motivation are strengthened.
Many research questions remain for social cognitive theory. We need to know more about perceived similarity of observers to models. Research shows the influence of gender and ethnicity on the development of self-efficacy and goals in different areas, but research is needed to identify other potentially important dimensions, such as native language and accent (Olson & Dweck, 2009).
Social cognitive theory would benefit from more developmental emphasis. Especially important is how motivational variables (e.g., outcome expectations, self-efficacy) are influenced by children’s cognitive development. A better integration with human development should improve our understanding of the operation of motivational variables.
We need continued exploration of cultural variables. In some cultures, individual self-efficacy may be less important for motivation than collective efficacy. Understanding cultural processes has important implications for theory and educational practice.

Author

• Dale H. Schunk, University of North Carolina - Greensboro