What Is Motivation? Is It a State, a Trait, a Process, or an Outcome?

• In Event: Controversial Questions in Contemporary Motivation Science: Insights From the Leading Voices

Abstract

Objectives
Although agreement exists among motivation scientists on what motivation generally is, extracting only the most fundamental elements of motivation amid numerous constructs and theories is still not easy. This presentation will help define motivation by discussing the critical characteristics of motivation.

Perspectives
What is motivation? How do you know when one is motivated? What does “being motivated” necessarily entail?
One answer is that motivation is the internal process that energizes, directs, and sustains human actions (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020). All motivational processes are important. However, for motivation to energize and direct actions, one needs to have a goal and evaluate one’s progress toward that goal. Much motivation is temporary and prompted by existing conditions (state-like), but it can become more habitual (trait-like) as one develops interests and values.
A second answer defines motivation as a value-based decision-making process that determines action selection and effort expenditure (Kim, 2013). This process involves the calculation, comparison, evaluation, and updating of hedonic, utility, and goal value. Individuals approach the option with the highest overall expected value after engaging in a cost-benefit analysis.
A third answer defines motivation as the energization and direction of behavior (Elliot, 2020). Energization serves to activate and orient individuals and is commonly experienced as a desire, fear, interest, or concern. Direction serves to channel and guide the general energization toward specific outcomes and is commonly experienced as a goal. Energization and direction work together to produce motivated action.

Methods (Common to All 6 Controversial Questions)
The methodology is a careful review and interpretation of existing theory and research. A theoretical and conceptual analysis of the given controversy allows each presenter to form their own conclusions. Thus, each presenter defends their position in the most scientific and persuasive manner.

Evidence (Common to All 6 Controversial Questions)
The evidence to answer each controversial question consists of theory and empirical findings. Empirical evidence accrued over the past several decades in educational and social psychology has been evaluated by the presenters to provide creative insights into each controversy.

Summary
The three co-presenters agree on several critical features of motivation: Motivation is a process; an internal phenomenon that is difficult to observe; and not a unitary phenomenon. To be motivated is to be moved to do something, and that movement arises from a “mental representation of a desired future state.” The prototype of such a mental representation is a “goal,” so motivation is essentially a goal-directed process that moves the person toward a desired future state. Any definition of motivation requires both components of goal and desire. Desire provides movement’s energy, while goal provides movement’s direction. The controversy is whether to include only one vs. both critical components (goal, desire), whether some motivational states are more defining than are others, and whether “energize and direct behavior” is too descriptive, rather than explanatory.

Significance
Diverse types of motivation exist, and different theorists place different weights on particular types of motivation, such as self-beliefs, values, needs, and goals in their own research.

Authors

• Dale H. Schunk, University of North Carolina - Greensboro

• Sung-il Kim, Korea University

• Andrew J. Elliot, University of Rochester