Toward an Interpersonal Theory of Academic Motivation: Rethinking Student Motivation Through an Interdependent Self Lens

• In Event: Sociocultural Origins and Processes of Student Motivation: Advancing Theory, Informing Research, and Transforming Practice

Abstract

Objectives. Student motivation has traditionally been conceptualized through an intrapersonal lens, emphasizing self-based constructs such as self-efficacy, expectancy-value beliefs, and personally autonomous motivation (Wentzel & Skinner, 2022). These models, grounded in individualistic traditions and the assumption of an independent self (Spence, 1985), foreground internal attributes and self-agency as primary sources of motivation and behavior (Markus, 2016). However, growing scholarship highlights the need to account for sociocultural influences on motivation (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020). In response, this paper advances an interdependent-self perspective—positioning social relationships and role obligations as central motivational forces. This reframing broadens prevailing theories to better capture the diversity of students’ motivational experiences.

Theoretical Framework. This paper adopts an interdependent-self standpoint to re-examine three intertwined self-based models of student motivation—self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), situated expectancy-value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020), and self-determination (Ryan & Deci, 2017)—which, while acknowledging social influences, have traditionally emphasized personal agency as the primary driver of motivation. This examination is grounded in Markus and Kitayama’s (1991) distinction between independent selves, defined by unique personal attributes, and interdependent selves, defined by social roles and relationships. It also incorporates integrative models—such as autonomous interdependence (Deci & Ryan, 1991) and the autonomous-relational self (Kagitçibasi, 1996)—which propose that the self can be both autonomous and relational.

Modes of Inquiry and Data Sources. Guided by the independent–interdependent-self framework, this paper offers a theoretical analysis and research synthesis on how key social agents influence student motivation within the three focal models. The interdependent-self perspective is then used to revisit findings that appear paradoxical from an individualistic view: students performing well despite low self-efficacy/interest (Li et al., 2021), excelling on tasks chosen by others (Fu & Markus, 2014), or learning effectively when motivated by social obligation (King & Ganotice, 2015).

Substantiated Conclusions. Our synthesis shows that traditional theories rooted in an independent-self view frame social agents as external to the self and typically as (a) sources of socialization shaping motivational beliefs and values, or (b) providers of support fostering autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Contrastingly, an interdependent-self perspective sees social agents as integral to the self, highlighting three approaches: (a) concomitant, where independent and interdependent motivational forces jointly shape outcomes; (b) antecedent, where interdependent motivation channels the effect of independent motivation on outcomes; or (c) self-and-other integration, where motivation is characterized as inherently relational and guided by collective goals. This perspective reveals that student motivation can be as socially anchored as it is individually derived, explaining how students may excel even with low self-efficacy/interest, on tasks chosen by others, or when driven by duty.

Scholarly Significance. This paper advances an interdependent-self perspective on student motivation, emphasizing social relationships and role obligations as central drivers of achievement motivation. It offers a complementary lens to prevailing theories that foreground individual agency and the independent self. Rather than positioning independent and interdependent self-views as a dichotomy, this perspective advocates for their integration in theory, research, and practice—enabling a more holistic and culturally attuned understanding of student motivation across diverse global contexts.

Author

• Gregory Arief D. Liem, National Institute of Education - Nanyang Technological University