Marginalizing Mandarin: A Process-Tracing Study of Dual Language Bilingual Education in LAUSD

• In Event: Transdisciplinary Perspectives for Critically Analyzing Bilingual Education Systems

Abstract

Objectives

In recent years, dual language bilingual education (DLBE) programs have expanded across the U.S, with notable growth in non-Spanish programs. In California, the Global California 2030 initiative signaled a statewide commitment to multilingualism, yet support at the state and district level for non-Spanish DLBE programs remains deeply inadequate (Ee & Sung, 2024), particularly in multilingual curricular materials, language-specific professional development, and a robust teacher pipeline (Author, 2024; Chan Hill, 2023). Focusing on Mandarin DLBE programs, this study seeks to understand why non-Spanish programs are consistently marginalized in the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD).

Theoretical Framework

Drawing from public policy, we use historical institutionalism, particularly the notion of path dependency (Mahoney & Thelen, 2009), to examine how historical norms and structures within California’s education system shape DLBE implementation. We complement this with network governance theory (Kapucu & Hu, 2020) to analyze the political dynamics among district-level, school-level, and community stakeholders, to uncover how differences in network strength and resource access contribute to the systemic marginalization of non-Spanish DLBE programs.

Methods

This study employs process tracing to systematically examine causal factors and mechanisms underlying the persistent marginalization of LAUSD’s longest-standing Mandarin DLBE program. Drawing on interviews with district leaders, teachers, and parents, policy and media document analysis, and causal-process observations, we traced a causal sequence of policy decisions, institutional dynamics, and network governance to explain why non-Spanish DLBE programs fail to receive adequate support, despite LAUSD’s well-intentioned language equity initiatives. To establish a stable causal account, we tested for the explanatory power of historical institutionalism and network governance theory by constructing and evaluating hypothetical causal worlds grounded in the evidence collected, employing reasoning akin to Bayesian probabilistic logic.

Results

Preliminary findings reveal a disconnect between LAUSD’s stated commitments to multilingualism and the realities of non-Spanish program implementation. Through process tracing, we identified a sequence of decisions and institutional norms that established a path-dependent trajectory, where Spanish continued to dominate bilingual education planning, funding, and infrastructure, while non-Spanish DLBE programs remained under-resourced. Interview and documentary data surfaced three causal mechanisms explaining Mandarin DLBE marginalization: (1) institutional inertia rooted in early bilingual policy that equated bilingual education with Spanish-English instruction; (2) weak, fragmented network ties among Mandarin DLBE advocates, teachers, and administrators, limiting collective capacity to influence district policy; and (3) symbolic policy gestures from leadership without substantive resource allocation. These mechanisms, operating within a broader racialized hierarchy of languages, have undermined the sustainability and expansion of Mandarin DLBE.

Significance

This study contributes to both the methodological and substantive literature on bilingual education policy. Methodologically, it demonstrates the value of process tracing for uncovering causal pathways and explaining mechanisms that determine language policy formation, adoption, and implementation (Thomas et al., 2024; Authors, 2025). Substantively, findings demonstrate how institutional legacies and uneven governance structures continue to marginalize non-Spanish DLBE programs, even in progressive urban districts with multilingual policies. By identifying specific causal mechanisms, this study offers insights for practitioners and advocates seeking to disrupt language hierarchies and strengthen support for all DLBE programs.

Authors

• Kevin M. Wong, Pepperdine University

• Erina Iwasaki, Teachers College, Columbia University