Higher-Order Cognitions in L1 and L2 and Their Relations to Comprehension in Multilingual Learners

• In Event: Cognition, Comprehension, Culture, and Cross-Linguistic Transfer: Advancing Equity in Reading Development

Abstract

Objectives
With over 5 million English learners in U.S. schools, understanding how students leverage their native language cognitive skills to build English reading skills has never been more critical. This longitudinal study examines two research questions using data from Spanish-speaking English learners in grades 1-3: (1) What is the relationship between higher-order cognitions in L1 and L2? and (2) How do executive function, L1 and L2 vocabulary, higher-order cognitions, and decoding skills in grade 1 predict grade 3 L2 reading comprehension? These questions address critical gaps in understanding cross-linguistic transfer and the structural relations among skills in multilingual learners.

Theoretical Framework
This study is grounded in the Direct and Indirect Effects Model of Reading (DIER; Kim, 2020, 2023), which posits that higher-order cognitions—including inference making, perspective taking, and comprehension monitoring—are essential for reading comprehension. Furthermore, the hierarchical hypothesis of DIER proposes that higher-order cognitions mediate relationships between executive functions (e.g., working memory) and oral language skills (e.g., vocabulary) in predicting comprehension outcomes. For multilingual learners DIER posits that higher-order cognitions transfer between L1 and L2. This study tests both the predictive relationship from L1 to L2 higher-order cognitions and their mediational role in Spanish-speaking English learners.

Method and Data
Participants included 145 grade 1 Spanish-speaking English learners (60% female). In grade 1, students were assessed on vocabulary, higher-order cognitions (inference making, perspective taking, comprehension monitoring), and decoding skills in both English and Spanish. Executive function measures included working memory and attentional control. English reading comprehension was assessed at the end of grade 3.

Results
Structural equation modeling revealed that Spanish higher-order cognition was moderately related to English higher-order cognition, even after controlling for working memory, attentional control, and vocabulary in both languages. Importantly, higher-order cognitions mediated relationships between executive functions, vocabulary, and grade 3 English reading comprehension. Specifically, executive functions predicted Spanish vocabulary, which predicted Spanish higher-order cognition. This, in turn, predicted English higher-order cognition, which subsequently predicted English reading comprehension. Additionally, executive functions predicted English vocabulary, which predicted English higher-order cognition, which predicted reading comprehension. These relationships were significant after controlling for phonological decoding skills in both languages, gender, instructional program type, and racial background.

Significance
Findings provide empirical support for cross-linguistic transfer of higher-order cognitions from L1 to L2 in Spanish-speaking English learners. Results also confirm hierarchical relationships where executive functions predict oral language and decoding skills, oral language predicts higher-order cognitions, and higher-order cognitions predict reading comprehension. These findings offer theoretical validation for both cross-linguistic transfer and hierarchical relations for multilingual learners classified as English learners. Practically, results suggest that developing L1 higher-order cognitions may serve as leverage for enhancing L2 comprehension skills, informing instructional approaches for multilingual learners.

Author

• Young-Suk Grace Kim, University of California - Irvine