Race, Gender, and Faith: Addressing Gendered Islamophobia in Higher Education

• In Event: Unforgetting Legal Precedent: Illuminating the Roots of Discrimination and Forging Equitable Futures in Education

Abstract

Study Objectives
This paper examines how intersections of racialized and gendered Islamophobia manifest on college campuses, exploring how the disconnect between Title IV and Title IX fails to adequately protect Muslim women students from harassment and discrimination. While Title VI prohibits discrimination based on race or national origin, and Title IX addresses sex-based discrimination, neither explicitly protects against religious discrimination, which is crucial for Muslim women whose experiences are often both racialized and gendered. The paper advocates for an intersectional interpretation of Title IX that addresses the unique vulnerabilities of visibly Muslim women in higher education.

Theoretical Framework
This study is grounded in the Racial Muslim (Aziz, 2021) and Minoritized Religious and Spiritual Campus Climate (MRSCC) (Cole et al., 2020) frameworks, which highlight how Muslim women (particularly those who wear the hijab) experience forms of harassment that are both racialized and gendered. These experiences often fall outside traditional interpretations of Title VI and Title IX, which primarily center Western notions of gender-based violence.

Methodology
This paper uses qualitative data from 10 semi-structured interviews with Muslim female students at public and private universities in the U.S., particularly focusing on Muslim women who wear hijab. Participants were recruited through Muslim student organizations and campus networks. Data were analyzed phenomenologically to identify common themes in students' experiences with harassment and their understanding of the reporting process under Title IX. Coding was guided by emergent themes and concepts from Title VI, Title IX, intersectionality, and racialized gendered Islamophobia literature.

Findings
Preliminary findings reveal significant safety concerns for Muslim, female-identifying students, mirroring broader research on campus harassment. One participant described his experience as a male ally: “There are aspects of safety [following October 7th, 2023], like I've had close female friends of mine who are Muslim activists and on the front lines who came to me and asked me if I minded picking them up sometimes or just walking with them because they don't feel safe on campus, especially after a student was targeted with no institutional response for the incident.”
This personal account reflects how requests for accompaniment due to fear of harassment illustrate intersectional discrimination, including Islamophobic comments and assumptions about identity. Findings highlight the lack of institutional response, where students are often redirected or dismissed when attempting to report incidents. This mirrors the study’s conclusion that many Muslim female students feel unprotected and isolated, often opting not to report such incidents.

Study Significance
This study underscores significant gaps in the implementation of Title VI and Title IX on college campuses, especially in addressing the gendered and racialized experiences of religious minorities. By centering the voices of Muslim women students, the paper calls for a reimagining of Title IX that incorporates intersectionality and recognizes the interplay of religious, racial, gender, and national origin identities in understanding campus harassment. The findings provide policy and practice recommendations for Title IX staff training, expanded definitions of gender-based harassment, and enhanced institutional accountability to foster more inclusive campus environments for all students.

Author

• Milie Majumder, University of Southern California