Where is the Empirical Evidence?

• In Event: Fifty Years of Push and Pull: Challenging Assumptions about Inclusion Within Traditional Special Education Discourse

Abstract

Purpose/Objectives
In recent years, inclusive education for students with extensive support needs (ESN) has faced growing criticism (Fuchs et al., 2025; Kauffman et al., 2023), often without empirical evidence. In this review, we explore studies with empirical data on inclusive educational placements for students with ESN. This review examines empirical research on inclusive placements for students with ESN, aiming to challenge persistent myths about their exclusion from general education. To date, drawing from a review of over 10,000 articles, we found no empirical evidence that supports segregation of students with ESN, only studies that affirm the academic benefits of inclusive practices. By the end of the session, participants will be able to
1. Identify why anti-inclusion rhetoric is harmful to schools and students with ESN; and
2. Identify empirical data that supports inclusive educational placements for students with ESN.

Perspectives/Theoretical Framework
At the core, inclusive education is a social justice issue grounded in equity, opportunity, and civil rights. For students with ESN, these rights are continuously denied, under the guise of safety and access to perceived expertise from a special education teacher (Waitoller & Artiles, 2013). Placement data for students with ESN continue to demonstrate their educational segregation at federal (U.S. Department of Education, 2019), state (Cosier, 2018, 2020; Morningstar et al., 2017), district (White et al., 2019), and school levels (Bacon et al., 2016). Students continue to be segregated based on where they live and their disability labels (White et al., 2019).

Methods and Data Sources
We conducted a systematic literature review following PRISMA guidelines, including a database search (ProQuest Education Database, PubMed, EBSCO Education Research Complete, ProQuest ERIC, PsycINFO), hand search, and author search (Page et al., 2020). One author used various search terms and strategies to find research related to our study and imported those articles into Covidence. Then a hand search was conducted based on research conducted by anti-inclusion researchers. Our search yielded 14,396 articles.

Results
Of the 14,396 records, 3,613 were duplicates, with 10,783 records remaining. To date, we have completed title and abstract screening for 6,246 records, of which 825 records have advanced to full-text eligibility review. At this time, none of the screened articles have indicated a negative impact of inclusive education on students with ESN.

Scholarly Significance
Prominent scholars in special education whose expertise does not center on students with ESN have made claims about the harms of inclusive education for students with ESN and all students with disabilities in general. However, recent work by prominent scholars with expertise in supporting students with ESN and inclusive education have conducted studies that demonstrate the harm of segregated placements and the academic, social, and behavioral benefits of inclusive educational settings for students with ESN (Gee et al., 2020; Mansouri et al., 2022; Toews et al., 2020). The results will indicate if there are any data to support the segregation of students with ESN, which will have practical implications for placement decisions and directions for future research.

Authors

• Megan E. Carpenter, Clemson University

• Kristin K. Burnette, East Carolina University

• Charlene Loope, East Carolina University

• Susan Gollihugh, Montgomery Independent School District

• Rebecca Smith Heinze, University of Arizona