Numeric tokens? A Qualitative Test of Tokenism in Policing

• In Event: The Evolving Experiences of Women in Policing

Abstract

Coined in 1977 to explain the unique experiences of women in the business world, Kanter’s theory of tokenism argued that numeric tokens (i.e. fifteen percent or less of a workforce) faced challenges not experienced by the majority group, including heightened visibility, isolation from the dominant group, and role encapsulation. Studies of tokenism in policing have produced mixed empirical support for these main concepts (Archbold & Schulz, 2008; Belknap & Shelley, 1992; Cowan & Bochantin, 2009; Gustafson, 2008; Krimmel & Gormley, 2003), but much of this research has relied on single agency samples and quantitatively measured single-item indicators, resulting in limited generalizability. This study, based on a sample of female officers drawn from a representative sample of state, county, and municipal police departments and comprising a range of numerical gender proportions, used women’s narratives to take a look at the suitability of tokenism to explain the occupational experiences of modern policewomen, expanded by including the correlates of years of service, percent of the department which is female, rank of the officer interviewed, females in leadership, as well as sex role identification.

Authors

• Cara Rabe-Hemp, Illinois State University

• Cameron Harper, Illinois State University