The Torghud Exodus and the Qazaq Zhuz: Imperial Subjecthood on the 18th Century Steppe

• In Event: Local Agency and the Limits of Imperial Knowledge in the Kazakh Steppe and Beyond

Abstract

Starting in 1730, many Qazaq khans and sultans declared their submission to the Tsarist empire, and after 1755 some also declared submission to the Qing empire. Scholars agree that these declarations did not imply real sovereignty, but the precise relationship they entailed requires further elaboration. This study analyzes the actions of Qazaq aristocratic elites during the Torghud exodus to understand their relationships with the Romanov and Qing states. It uses a variety of primary sources, including military and diplomatic correspondence between Qazaq, Torghud, Romanov, and Qing officials, intelligence reports, officials’ diaries, and oral tradition.

In 1771, most of the Torghud (Kalmyk) population fled its pastures along the Volga to the Dzungarian basin, which was recently depopulated by Qing conquest. Romanov officials bade the Qazaqs punish the fleeing Torghuds, while Qing authorities demanded that they grant the Torghuds safe passage. The Torghud exodus provides an interesting case study because in this situation, the two empires’ interests were in direct conflict, meaning Qazaq actions could indicate their level of actual obedience to either side (or lack thereof). Furthermore, the rhetoric used by Qazaq elites to describe these events to imperial authorities reveals their perception of their own place in a broader steppe political and diplomatic framework.

The study finds that Qazaq actions during the Torghud Exodus were influenced by obligations to both empires. While Nurali Khan of the Junior Zhuz attacked the fleeing Torghuds, Ablai Sultan of the Middle Zhuz let them escape for fear of Qing reprisals. However, leaders of both Zhuz used the rhetoric of imperial subjecthood to justify their actions and demand concessions from both empires. Of particular importance was the return of fugitive Torghud captives, which Qazaqs demanded in return for their “earnest service.” They thereby depicted subjecthood as a reciprocal relationship that placed obligations on both sides.

Author

• Daniil Kabotyanski, Indiana U Bloomington