Government-sponsored scholarship students from Mongolia to Japan: Transformative learning experiences?

• In Event: Government relationship with higher education

Proposal

In 2015, the United Nations (UN) recommended in number four of its Sustainable Development Goals to ‘substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries…for enrolment in higher education’ (UN, 2015). The rationale for this goal and many other scholarships is that ‘scholarships for individuals to pursue international education can lead to more equitable, sustainable, inclusive and prosperous communities’ (Dassin et al., 2018). Another assumption is that individuals would develop not only technical and professional skills but also develop critical, analytical thinking, leadership skills, build personal and professional networks, expand their perspectives to look at issues, or become better equipped to solve problems (Campbell, 2016). However, despite growth in a number of available scholarship programs, little is known about sponsored students’ experiences—whether their learning experience prepares them to make changes in their communities upon return.

This paper draws on transformative learning theories conceptualized by Mezirow (1991) to understand how government-sponsored Mongolian alumni make meaning of their experience in Japan through their reflections. Mezirow (1978) defined perspective transformation as,
The process of becoming critically aware of how and why our assumptions have come to constrain the way we perceive, understand, and feel about our world; changing these structures of habitual expectation to make possible a more inclusive, discriminating, and integrative perspective; and finally, making choices or otherwise acting upon these new understandings (Mezirow 1991, p.167).
Utilizing phenomenological approach, the study involved semi-structured interviews with 20 alumni (graduated from master’s or doctoral degree programs from Japanese universities in during 2004-2014) from three scholarship programs—the Japanese government scholarship (MEXT scholarship), the Japanese Grant Aid for Human Resources Development (JDS scholarship), and Mongolian government loan-scholarship program (MGL scholarship). Despite their differences in programming (e.g. selection criteria) and conditionality (e.g. requirement to work in state organization after graduation), they have similar goals—to prepare human resources that would contribute to the home country development and bilateral relations between two countries. During one-hour interviews (on average), this study asked them to reflect on how they interpret their learning process as they look back.

Trilokekar and Kukar (2011) reported from their study on pre-service teacher candidates at York University, the US, “being an outsider in their host society and being away from home enabled more risk-taking behaviour, an opportunity to experience a new or different identity” (p.1146). Chang et al. (2011) also noted that a new location and culture is the prime place to explore, try and test an evolving identity. On the other hand, other studies found obstacles in transformative learning in study abroad programs. Foronda and Belknap (2012) determined three factors could potentially stop transformation from occurring: (a) egocentrism/emotional disconnect, (b) perceived powerlessness/being overwhelmed, and (c) a vacation mindset.

Individual perspective transformation is perceived to have a potential to spur change in communities. Mezirow (2009) viewed that individuals with perspective transformation form alliances with similar minds and perspectives and act together to make necessary changes in their communities. On the other hand, Freire (1970) viewed that emancipatory learning and critical consciousness provide the learner with a voice and words, an ability to describe their experiences and the world, and critical lenses to question the status quo (Freire 1970, p.88).

Majority of the participants in the study shared changes in their perceptions of professional ethics, morality, working habits, and the ways in which they make decisions. They reported three types of entry-ways to transformative learning similar to what Charaniya (2012) wrote regarding spiritual learning: diving-in, pushed-in, and testing the waters. The divers were active in their learning and constantly reflected on their observations on Japanese society, the ways people lived, cultural practices, academic norms. They did not necessarily face disorienting challenges but rather actively searched for experiences to make meaning of their observations. The pushed-in, on the other hand, faced significant challenges that shook the way they made decisions, the way they looked at the world and themselves. These individuals did not run away from their experiences but rather embraced the challenge and grew. The last type was the least likely to transform their perspectives. They had strong nationalistic identity but they were curious of Japanese norms and ideologies. Only few of them had critically reflected on their experiences.

Study found that supervisor’s challenges, part-time work experience, service-learning activities and volunteering works were important drives for transformative learning. Also, scholarship students received little support or network opportunities during their studies regardless of their programs. While JDS scholarship has a social media group on Facebook run by the students and alumni themselves neither MEXT nor MGL students have any networking platforms to develop and maintain connections or exchange ideas or talk about their experiences. In addition, none of the programs expose the grantees to any service learning or social activities. While some host universities offer variety of cultural activities, many universities had limited opportunities due to small number of international students. Unless students actively explored such opportunities on their own, the scholarship programs did little to enhance their involvement in such activities. Consequently, alumni’s experience was up to the host university, particularly the supervisor’s interference and their own personal attitude towards challenges.

Author

• Ariunaa Enkhtur, Osaka University, Graduate School of Human Sciences