Umeko and Masa, Japanese female international students in the Meiji period

• In Event: Higher Education, Mobility and Study Abroad

Proposal

This study aims to explore the factors of studying abroad and the impacts of the experiences on the surrounding environment. Specifically, the focus will be on two influential Japanese women who studied in the U.S. during the Meiji period (1868-1912), when Japan had ended its feudal system and was building a new nation: Umeko Tsuda, one of the first female international students in Japan and a pioneer of Japanese women's education, and Masa Nakayama, the first female Minister of Japan.
Previous studies have examined the impact of studying abroad. Yokota et al. (2018) provide a summary of studies on the impact of studying abroad in Japan and other countries. There are also studies on women who studied abroad in Japan during the Meiji period (Sasaki, 2021). Biographical studies of Umeko and Masa (Kunieda (2020), Mori (2014), etc.) have also been conducted. Furthermore, some studies, such as Taga (2022), have used biographical analysis to examine the process of producing elite women.
This study analyzes the factors influencing Umeko and Masa's study abroad and examines the impact of their experiences using Bronfenbrenner's "Ecological System of Human Development" framework. This study suggests that human development occurs through the interaction between individuals and their environment, consisting of various systems ranging from the Microsystem (family, community, etc.) to the Macrosystem (values, culture, laws, etc.), and chronosystem (life events, etc.).
This study identified three factors: (1) decision, (2) family or growing environment, and (3) sponsorship.
(1) Regarding who decided to study abroad, in Umeko’s case, it was her father. When she was six years old, in the 4th year of Meiji (1871), her father applied for her to the government's recruitment of female students. In contrast, Masa had the autonomy to decide on her study abroad plans. Although a female missionary teacher recommended that she study abroad in the U.S., Masa consulted her mother and made the decision herself. She went to the U.S. at the age of 20 in the 44th year of Meiji (1911).
(2) Family background and environment played a role in determining access to studying abroad. Umeko came from a high-status samurai family, and her father, who had personal experience abroad, idealized gender equality. Masa came from a single-parent household of commoner status. However, her family's financial resources, evident from her enrollment in a private mission school, provided her with the opportunity to study abroad.
(3) Concerning financial sponsors, Umeko was 100% sponsored by the Meiji government. Masa worked part-time in the U.S. during summer vacations to sustain herself, alongside support from school and missionary organizations.
This study identified the impact of studying abroad on various levels. At the individual level, Christianity influenced both. However, the development of Christianity’s influence differed between (1) Umeko and (2) Masa.
(1) In Umeko’s case, she was baptized while studying abroad, and her family embraced Christianity. Her father established an agricultural school with a Christian spirit. Thus, there is a mutually influential relationship within the Microsystem. The study abroad experience impacted the individual, and the impacted individual impacted their surroundings. Her impact extended beyond the Microsystem through her teaching activities at government girls' schools, a private mission school, and the English school she founded, guided by the Christian spirit. This English school was transformed into a university (Tsuda University) after the war. Establishing the school was a dream she had since her days studying abroad. Additionally, as the first president of the YWCA in Japan, she contributed to girls' education beyond the formal school system, further expanding her influence. However, her direct influence on the Macrosystem was limited due to societal constraints and the political landscape of the time. Nevertheless, in the 21st century, two alumnae of Tsuda University became ministers who worked on various laws and did much to enhance the status of women, indicating Umeko’s indirect impact on the Macrosystem.
(2) In contrast, Masa directly influenced the Macrosystem and Japanese society as a member of the Diet and Minister. Her experience studying in the U.S. played a significant role in the repatriation of Siberian internees, and she advocated for the vulnerable as the Minister of Health and Welfare, for example, by enacting the Child Support Allowance Law for single-parent families. It is unclear when she was baptized and whether it was before studying abroad, but her Christian spirit and education at a Christian university influenced her commitment to supporting the weak. Although it is unclear how Masa’s Christian influence impacted the Microsystem, her political participation had a significant effect on it. It had a reciprocal influence on her husband, who was a member of the Diet, and on her sons and grandson, who later became members of the Diet or ministers.

Author

• Seiko Kondo, Osaka Jogakuin University