Investing in Knowledge: The Role of Gender and Hukou in Household Decisions on Private Tutoring in China

• In Event: Rural Education in a Stratified Chinese Society: An Intersectional Perspective

Proposal

The theme of CIES 2024 emphasizes the “Power of Protest” and the public contestation of education norms, addressing both the histories and futures of activism within education. Our paper, “Investing in Knowledge: The Role of Gender and Hukou in Household Decisions on Private Tutoring in China,” is highly relevant as it delves into the intricacies of educational equity and access in China. Although the research does not directly highlight conventional forms of protest, it critically examines systemic barriers—like gender and hukou status—that affect educational decisions and opportunities. Such structural challenges often become focal points for public contestation and activism, especially when they perpetuate inequalities. By exploring how these barriers influence private tutoring decisions, our research aligns with the conference's call to understand the broader socio-political contexts that potentially limit or shape educational protest and activism.

Our investigation revolves around the education-poverty trap in rural and urban China, elucidating the evident disparities in educational resources’ distribution. Zhang (2017) offers a conceptual framework of the poverty trap, which denotes self-perpetuating mechanisms that prolong poverty. This forms a crucial backdrop for our study, illuminating relationships like internal migration and the implications of the Chinese household registration system. Concurrently, we scrutinize private tutoring’s role in academic achievement, drawing on diverse studies detailing both its beneficial and detrimental effects.

Furthermore, gender disparities in education, especially the pronounced gender biases in rural areas and their impact on educational investments and outcomes, shape a critical dimension of our inquiry (Hannum, 2005). Gendered norms and economic constraints, influencing family decisions on educational investment, and gendered performance biases in subjects like math and science, are pivotal elements we consider (Li & Tsang, 2003). Grounded in these multifaceted theoretical foundations, our study refines its research questions, seeking to bridge existing knowledge gaps.

This research examines student involvement in private tutoring in China, focusing on disparities linked to socioeconomic status, gender, and urban-rural contexts. Our questions are: how do in-school and out-of-school investments differ across urban and rural areas, and by gender? How do in-school and out of school factors compare in terms of investment as a percentage of total household income across urban and rural areas and by gender? And how do these variables influence children’s academic achievement, as indicated by their class rank?

We utilize the China Institute for Educational Finance Research-Household Survey 2017 (CIEFR-HS 2017), covering 29 provinces, 355 cities/districts/counties, with a focus on 13,363 household members aged 6-16. Variables include in-school investments, out-of-school investments, gender, Hukou status, parental education level, and household income. We calculated the relative investment percentage by dividing investment amounts by household income. Two-way ANOVA tests and an ordinal logistic regression model help analyze these relationships, controlling for sociodemographic variables.

Our findings illustrate an urban-rural and gender divide in educational investments. Urban families invest more substantially in extracurricular private tutoring, school remedial classes, and interest classes, regardless of the child's gender. Additionally, a gender effect was noted, with urban females receiving significantly more tutoring investments than their male counterparts. The commencement of private tutoring begins later for rural students, with lower financial commitment seen in rural households compared to their urban counterparts. Notably, urban females spend more than their male counterparts and rural peers on tutoring.

In-school investments, as a percentage of total household income, are higher in urban households, with urban students having more significant expenditure on school remedial classes and interest classes. This trend continues for out-of-school factors, with urban households spending a higher proportion of their income on academic and extracurricular private tutoring and online resources. A gender disparity was observed, particularly within urban areas, with female students receiving more educational investments than males.

Furthermore, our findings suggest a complex relationship between both in-school and out-of-school investments and a student's class rank. Evidence shows in-school educational expenditures and extracurricular private tutoring positively influencing class rank. However, initiating academic private tutoring at an earlier grade negatively influences class rank, indicating potential risks associated with early tutoring. Finally, female students were consistently associated with higher class ranks, and urban students had a slight academic ranking advantage, which disappeared in more complex models, suggesting the impact of other factors.

This study provides an in-depth exploration of the influence of educational investments, gender, Hukou status, and their interaction on student’s class rank in China. Our research underscores the importance of the nature and usability of educational resources over the quantity of financial investment (Abbey, 2019). Notably, non-academic private tutoring significantly contributes to academic ranking, while early initiation of academic private tutoring can negatively impact class rank, challenging popular beliefs (Zhang et al., 2020).

Plus, our study further elucidates the nuanced role of gender and Hukou status on academic outcomes (Voyer & Voyer, 104). Female students consistently secure higher ranks, with the combined effect of being a female student from an urban area offering even greater benefits. Such an interaction points to the necessity of addressing intersectional inequities, particularly for rural female students (Wang & Degol, 2016). Additionally, Hukou status’ effect on class rank is variable, contesting assumptions of superior performance of urban students due to access to better resources (Barham et al., 1995; Wu et al., 2008). Our findings further validate the significance of parental education level and household socioeconomic status on class rank, emphasizing the need for systemic interventions (Wang & Degol, 2016). However, our study does face limitations, such as missing data, potential measurement inaccuracies, and inability to conclusively establish causality, which should be taken into account while interpreting results.

This study underscores the necessity for evidence-based educational policies that acknowledge the multifaceted influences on academic outcomes, challenging standardization and conventional perspectives. It highlights the intricate effects of educational investments, socio-economic status, and gender, particularly focusing on China’s context. Our findings advocate a future where education is universally accessible, transcending boundaries of gender, socio-economic disparity, and Hukou status. Future studies should aim to improve measurement precision, probe into factors like student motivation, and examine the hurdles faced by underprivileged demographics, especially rural female students.

Authors

• Hongjiao Li, Stanford Graduate School of Education

• Tracy Luan, Stanford Graduate School of Education