Islamophobia Reexamined: Unpacking Traditional and Structural Anti-Muslim Racism

• In Event: Highlighted Session: Between repression and resistance. Learning from the Palestinian education experience.

Proposal

*Overview and Relevance:*
Islamophobia is often viewed as a singular concept equating to anti-Muslim bias, which oversimplifies its complexity. This presentation seeks to unpack the layers of Islamophobia by differentiating between traditional Islamophobia (bias or prejudice against Muslims) and structural Islamophobia (systemic and institutional forms of discrimination) that have intensified since World War II. These biases affect not only Muslims but also those perceived to belong to these identities. Additionally, I will distinguish between Anti-Muslim, Anti-Arab, and Anti-Palestinian Racism, all of which both inform and are informed by Islamophobia. By examining these distinctions, I will explore the historical roots of Islamophobia, its manifestations in education, and its entanglement with global politics, highlighting the broader implications of this nuanced understanding for comparative and international education.

*Contextual/Conceptual Framing:*
Historically, Islamophobia in the U.S. has been racialized and tied to colonial and imperial interests. From the early media depictions of Muslims as barbaric to policies in response to 9/11 that frame Muslims as the "other," this systemic discrimination has continually evolved with grave consequences for communities across the globe. AMEMSA (Arab, Middle Eastern, Muslim, and South Asian) communities are the primary targets of this structural bias, often treated as collective security threats. While examining structural Islamophobia is necessary, it is important to further distinguish it from anti-Arab and anti-Palestinian racism. Though related to Islamophobia, Anti-Arab and anti-Palestinian racism is deeply tied to geopolitical dynamics, where Arabs and Palestinians are portrayed as obstacles to Western interests in the Middle East, contributing to a broader framework of exclusion. This presentation will thus explore how these narratives have shaped global attitudes and informed structural Islamophobia in the US in particular, where policies of mass surveillance, policing, and media portrayal reinforce Muslim (and Muslim adjacent) identities as inherently linked to terrorism. Further, these dynamics manifest in educational settings, where Islamophobia, anti-Arab and anti-Palestinian sentiment is exacerbated by geopolitical events and U.S. foreign policy. Understanding these distinctions is essential to address the various forms of exclusion and violence faced by AMEMSA communities.

*Methodology:*
This research draws on my two decades of research with US AMEMSA communities in the aftermath of 9/11. Drawing on ethnographic observations, interviews, focus groups, curriculum development, and media analysis, my research has explored how Islamophobia operates on different levels within educational systems—shaping curricula, pedagogy, and educational institutional climates. In this presentation, I shed light on how these forms of Islamophobia manifest in everyday interactions, disciplinary practices, and the marginalization of AMEMSA communities.

*Key Arguments:*
I make the following arguments regarding the need to distinguish between various forms of racism that inform Islamophobia and how Islamophobia manifests across multiple levels:

1. Historical Continuities in Islamophobia: The fear and demonization of Muslims have deep roots, long predating 9/11. From colonial descriptions of Muslims as violent and irrational to modern-day policies that frame them as national security threats, Islamophobia is an entrenched part of Western discourse, though there has been a significant shift since the end of World War II, • marking the rise of structural forms of Islamophobia.
2. Distinguishing Structural Islamophobia: Beyond individual bias, Islamophobia is institutionalized—upheld by surveillance policies, discriminatory immigration laws, and biased educational curricula. Structural Islamophobia is reinforced by policies that treat AMEMSA populations as default security threats, perpetuated by both state and educational institutions.
3. Anti-Arab and Anti-Palestinian Racism as Distinct from Anti-Muslim Racism: Although related, anti-Arab and anti-Palestinian sentiment is distinct from broader anti-Muslim racism or what is simply referred to as Islamophobia. Anti-Palestinian racism, driven by geopolitical issues, portrays Arabs and Palestinians as obstacles to Western interests in the Middle East. In the past year, this form of discrimination has become hyper-visible in educational settings, with serious consequences, including infringements on civil liberties, suppression of free speech, and a chilling effect on open discussions about Palestine and Middle Eastern politics more broadly.
4. Islamophobia in Education: Schools mirror these larger societal biases, often reinforcing Islamophobia through exclusionary curricula and inadequate responses to bullying and microaggressions. Teachers, often unprepared to address Islamophobia, may unintentionally (or intentionally) reinforce stereotypes and fail to create inclusive environments.

*Contribution to Existing Scholarly Knowledge:*
This presentation expands on existing scholarship on Islamophobia by making crucial distinctions between its traditional and structural manifestations of Islamophobia, while also differentiating them from anti-Arab and anti-Palestinian racism. It challenges the reductionist view of Islamophobia as merely individual prejudice, demonstrating that it is a deeply embedded form of systemic racism. By examining the intersection between global political dynamics (especially those related to Palestine) and Islamophobia, this research provides a more comprehensive framework for understanding how anti-Muslim, anti-Arab, and anti-Palestinian sentiments are produced and maintained. These distinctions are crucial for educators, policymakers, and scholars to develop more effective interventions that target the systemic nature of these distinct forms of racism.

*Conclusion:*
Islamophobia, anti-Arab, and anti-Palestinian racism are interconnected but distinct phenomena shaping the experiences of AMEMSA communities in the US and globally. Differentiating between the various manifestations of Islamophobia is essential for creating more inclusive educational environments. This research underscores the importance of understanding these distinctions to address the layered forms of discrimination within schools and broader societal structures that typically fall under Islamophobia.

Bibliography:
Lean, N. (2012). The Islamophobia industry: How the right manufactures hatred of Muslims. Pluto Press.

Mamdani, M. (2004). Good Muslim, bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the roots of terror. Pantheon Books.

Rana, J. (2011). Terrifying Muslims: Race and labor in the South Asian diaspora. Duke University Press.

Rimawi, L., Biskup, T., McMahon, E. L., & Ghannam, J. (2024, April). Anti-Palestinian racism survey preliminary report. The Anti-Palestinian Racism Research Group (APRRG) in consultation with the Arab Canadian Lawyers Association.

Author work not included for blinded review.

Author

• Ameena Ghaffar-Kucher, University of Pennsylvania