Heroic Figures for Nation-State: A Comparative Analysis of Textbooks in Japan, Kenya, and Syria

• In Event: Constructing Citizenship through Education: Textbooks, Competencies, and Democratic Practices Across Contexts

Proposal

A “nation-state” consists of an institution known as the state, which governs a specific territory, and a community that shares a collective consciousness, referred to as citizens. However, the existence of a state does not necessarily imply that its citizens share a unified collective consciousness. In countries that have experienced colonial rule, there exists a state as the ruling entity and citizens who have been subjected to oppression, alongside collective identities related to ethnic or religious groups that predate the establishment of national borders. In recent years, the forces of globalization and multiculturalism have unsettled the boundaries between nation and citizens. Under such circumstances, an important question for the nation is how to embrace and incorporate its citizens.
Primary school textbooks represent one of the most widely accessible public media, created on the assumption that all citizens of a country will encounter them. The figures depicted in these textbooks are typically presented as individuals who are superior to the public in some way, and they function as heroes or exemplary figures who impart moral lessons. In this study, we examine the types of citizens each country seeks to cultivate by clarifying how heroic figures in textbooks embody the nation’s self-presentation to its citizens.
The study focuses on three countries with markedly different social contexts: Japan (a democratic country in East Asia), Kenya (an independent African country that experienced colonial rule), and Syria (one of the most authoritarian states in the Arab world, which collapsed in December 2024). By comparing these cases, we aim to illuminate their respective historical and social contexts.
The main findings are as follows. First, there is a close relationship between textbook content and the current political structure. In Syria, presidents who led the authoritarian regime are depicted as the most prominent heroes, whereas in Kenya and Japan there is no reference to contemporary leaders. In Kenya, the heroes depicted are largely community leaders, with little mention of independence-era presidents or anti-colonial fighters who might otherwise be considered widely recognized heroes. In Japan, political leaders from the premodern period appear frequently, but their presence declines dramatically in modern and contemporary times.
Second, the frequency and roles of figures vary significantly. In Japan, historical textbooks feature individuals extensively, with a total of 70 figures (compared to 5 in Kenya and 16 in Syria). This reflects Japan’s person-centered view of history. By contrast, Kenya makes almost no reference to individual actors, with only a few mentioned as representatives of past governmental structures. In Syria, the textbooks are structured around the dichotomy of Syria/Arab versus foreign countries, and many heroes are presented as Syrians who resisted invading forces.
The comparative analysis reveals that the political structures and historical narratives of each country shape not only the selection of heroes but also the manner in which they are represented. Despite their shared experience of colonial rule, Kenya and Syria portray Western societies in contrasting ways. In Kenya, the absence of active depictions of colonial rule and the independence struggle may reflect the fact that the fighters of the independence movement are not necessarily perceived as ancestral to the present population. In Syria, by contrast, the nation is portrayed as something preserved and defended against foreign invasions, with the West consistently depicted as the enemy. In Japan, portrayals of modern rulers have declined sharply, but in earlier historical accounts the nation is shown as the product of contributions by numerous individuals (predominantly men) who advanced society.
In summary, the three countries project distinct national images: in Japan, the nation is framed as a legacy passed down through generations; in Kenya, as a product of community collaboration; and in Syria, as a community to be defended through unity. Future research should consider how these differing national imaginaries shape the formation and persistence of the nation-state.

Authors

• Miku Ogawa, Osaka University of Economics

• Kaoru Ghalawinji-Yamamoto