Gender Stereotypes and Perceptions of Bidirectional Intimate Partner Violence

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Abstract

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a significant public health issue often discussed in terms of unidirectional aggression. However, a growing body of literature has highlighted that bidirectional violence (BV), in which both partners engage in violent behavior, is not only common but often under-recognized due to deeply rooted gender stereotypes. These stereotypes tend to cast women as victims and men as perpetrators, shaping public and individual perceptions of violent interactions and influencing judgments about responsibility, severity, and appropriate interventions. This study aimed to explore these perceptual biases using three immersive virtual reality (VR) scenarios that involve bidirectional IPV. A total of 162 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to view one of the scenarios and subsequently completed a questionnaire in which they had to identify the victim and perpetrator, assess the severity of violence, and suggest the most appropriate resolution. Results revealed consistent gender biases: participants rated female-perpetrated violence more harshly than male-perpetrated violence and judged women more negatively when they initiated the conflict. Conversely, male-dominated violence does not elicit stronger attributions of responsibility or severity. Physical violence was consistently perceived as more serious than psychological violence, regardless of gender. These findings align with previous research showing that gendered expectations and societal norms mediate IPV perceptions. They highlight the need for prevention and intervention strategies that acknowledge the complexity of bidirectional IPV and actively address gender-based cognitive biases.

Authors

• Andreia Machado, Lusófona University, Hei Lab

• Raquel Caixinha, Universidade Lusófona

• Nélio Brazão, University of Coimbra

• Elizabeth Bates, Cumbria University

• Ben Hine, University of West London

• Filipe Luz, Universidade Lusófona

• Filipe Pinto, Universidade Lusófona

• Inês Jongenelen, Universidade Lusófona

• Pedro Gamito, Universidade Lusófona

• Olga Cunha, University of Minho