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Stop Searches and the Spatial Distribution of Police Use of Force in the United Kingdom
Thu, September 4, 2:30 to 3:45pm, Deree | Classrooms, DC 602Abstract
Few police powers in England and Wales are as contentious as stop and search. Concerns about its disproportionate application and broader societal consequences persist, particularly regarding its unequal enforcement. Research suggests that the spatial concentration of stop and search is shaped by ecological and structural conditions. However, these encounters are not uniform; what begins as a routine stop may escalate into a more intrusive and coercive interaction, culminating in the use of force or a strip search. Yet, the escalation of stop and search encounters and their spatial distribution remain largely overlooked in empirical research. This study addresses this gap by examining how neighbourhood dynamics at a small geographic level (i.e., Lower Super Output Areas) level shape the spatial distribution of escalatory stop and search encounters. Using stop and search data from Norfolk and Suffolk Constabularies (N = 6,082) collected between 1 January and 31 December 2023, we analyse three key outcomes: (1) the total number of stop searches, (2) stop searches that involved the use of force, and (3) stop searches that resulted in a strip search exposing intimate parts. To account for spatial autocorrelation and inter-neighbourhood influences, we include spatial lag variables for each outcome. Findings from negative binomial regression reveal that areas with higher concentrations of racial and immigrant populations are significantly associated with increased escalatory encounters, whereas economic hardship and residential instability show weaker associations. Additionally, immediate features of the built environment—such as retail areas and betting shops—are significantly linked to higher levels of stop and search and use of force, but not strip searches. Finally, escalatory policing clusters across neighbouring areas, with spatial lag effects indicating that outcomes in one location are closely tied to those in adjacent areas.