The iatrogenesis effects of migration policies; from migrant smuggling to human trafficking: the Italy-Libya case

• In Event: Rethinking migrant smuggling: Narratives, perceptions and policies across routes

Abstract

Migrant smuggling has been often approached from a criminological lens and, therefore, explored in continuity with human trafficking and framed as a matter of law enforcement and emergency policies. Nevertheless, the smuggling industry has proved to be a much more complex phenomenon involving different steps and actors organised in horizontal loose networks built on opportunistic and temporary affiliations. However, the iatrogenesis effect triggered by anti-smuggling policies/agreements can lead to a replacement of those small-scale, horizontal loose networks with larger, hierarchical and more sophisticated criminal organisations more capable to bypass stricter control. While policies are ostensibly designed for ‘humanitarian purposes, their restrictive profile encourages a criminal professionalisation of actors and organisational restructuring of smuggling networks. Taking as case study the Central Mediterranean Sea routes between Italy and Libya and drawing insights from 12 in-depth qualitative interviews with key informants based in Sicily and judicial proceedings, this paper aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge concerning iatrogenesis anti-smuggling policies. Assessing Italy-Libya relations in the last decades aimed at the externalisation and securitisation of borders, the focus is on the bi-lateral agreements established between the two countries both in 2008, Italy-Libya Treaty of Friendship, and 2017, Memorandum of Understanding. The paper argues that those bi-lateral agreements have not only prompted an iatrogenesis effect on the smuggling industry in Libya but have also led to transition from human smuggling to human trafficking giving the presence of organised extortion, exploitation and violence perpetrated by hierarchical criminal militias.

Authors

• Giuseppe Serrantino, Middlesex University London

• Myrna Papadouka, Senior lecturer in Criminology, Middlesex University, London

• Nicola Montagna, Middlesex University London