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Developmental literature has frequently identified sex differences in psychopathology among adolescents (Leadbeater et al, 1999); particularly, that adolescent girls show higher rates of internalizing problems than boys, while boys show higher externalizing than girls (Zahn-Waxler et al, 1993). As individuals face changes in environment, physiological adjustments occur to meet environmental demands; this is known as “allostasis” (Sterling & Eyer, 1988). The HPA-axis plays a critical role in this adaptive process by regulating adrenocortical stress responses. Research suggests that internalizing and externalizing behaviors are associated with functioning of this system (Bauer et al, 2002) and that there are sex differences in HPA stress responses (Hastings et al, 2011). Sex differences in physiological stress responses have been proposed as one mechanism through which sex may confer risk for psychopathology. These patterns have been conceptualized in terms of biological sex; however, literature has not explored the possible influence of gender role. Gender role refers to an individual’s adherence to perceived typical “masculine” or “feminine” behaviors, independent of biological sex (Bem, 1974).
In the current study, we examined associations between biological sex, gender role, and HPA stress response in the prediction of internalizing and externalizing symptoms in a sample of 220 adolescents (109 females, M = 13.67 years, SD = 1.52). Adolescents participated in a modified Trier Social Stress Task and provided salivary cortisol samples immediately before and 20 minutes and 40 minutes after the task. Adolescents also completed a measure of adherence to masculine and feminine gendered roles (Children’s Sex Roles Inventory [CSRI]; Boldizar, 1991), and parents and adolescents reported on internalizing and externalizing symptoms (Child Behavior Checklist [CBCL], Youth Self Report [YSR]; Achenbach 1991). We hypothesized that gender role would interact with biological sex and physiological reactivity in the prediction of internalizing and externalizing problems.
Hierarchical linear regressions indicated that masculinity positively predicted externalizing problems, controlling for biological sex and cortisol reactivity (R2 = .059, β = .250, t = 3.556, p = .000). The interaction between sex and femininity predicted internalizing problems (R2 = .081, β = .147, t = 2.202, p = .029). Specifically, among biological females, as femininity increased, internalizing behaviors increased, whereas among biological males, as femininity increased, internalizing behaviors decreased. The interaction between femininity and cortisol reactivity also predicted internalizing problems (R2 = .081, β = .219, t = 3.108, p = .002). For adolescents that reported high femininity, as cortisol reactivity increased, internalizing problems also increased, whereas for adolescents with low femininity, internalizing problems decreased as cortisol reactivity increased. In addition, the interaction between femininity and cortisol reactivity predicted externalizing problems (R2 = .077, β = .148, t = 2.093, p = .038). For adolescents with high femininity, as cortisol reactivity increased, externalizing problems increased, while for adolescents with low femininity, externalizing problems decreased as cortisol reactivity decreased.
These findings suggest that biological sex does not explain the entirety of sex differences, and that gender role is implicated in processes through which biological sex and physiological reactivity confer risk for internalizing and externalizing behaviors in adolescents.
Jessica L Arend, University of Minnesota
Presenting Author
Adrienne VanZomeren, University of Minnesota
Non-Presenting Author
Meredith Gunlicks-Stoessel, University of Minnesota
Non-Presenting Author
Carolyn Zahn-Waxler, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Non-Presenting Author
Paul Hastings, University of California, Davis
Non-Presenting Author
Bonnie Klimes-Dougan, University of Minnesota
Non-Presenting Author