Handwriting, Looking Behavior, and Numerical Development

• In Event: Poster Session 04
  In Poster Session: PS 04 Topic - Cognitive Processes

Abstract

Introduction
The ability to write digits automatically contributes to early math achievement. Research on fine motor development and cognitive load (Cameron et al., 2016) suggests that children who struggle with writing numbers have fewer cognitive resources available for numerical problem solving than children who write numbers automatically. Yet little is known about how automaticity in writing numbers is acquired. Here, we examine the process of number writing by kindergarten children in real time. We use head-mounted eye-tracking technology to investigate how kindergarten children coordinate eye and hand movements as they attempt to copy digits.
Method
Five- to six-year-old kindergarten children (N=20) wore a Positive Science head-mounted eye-tracker and were individually presented nine single digit and triple digit stimuli to copy, one at a time in random order. (Here we report results for single digit trials only.) Children’s eye movements when initially looking and subsequently writing the stimulus were recorded. Eye-tracking data were behaviorally coded for “look-backs” and analyzed for fixations. A “look-back” gaze refers to children looking back at the numerical stimulus after they had begun to write, indicating an interruption in automaticity. A second coder scored videos (20%) for reliability of number of look-backs, resulting in a Cohen's Kappa of 0.67. After performing the number copying task, children completed the Woodcock-Johnson IV Math Fact Fluency and Letter-Word Identification Achievement subtests.
Results
Data were analyzed using GLMM procedures with a Poisson distribution and log link function in R. Time in kindergarten, gender, mathematics achievement, reading achievement and numeral were included in the model as fixed-effects. To account for by-subject and by-item variability, trial number and subject ID were entered as random-intercept predictors. Children looked at the target stimulus while writing between 0-6 times (M=0.4, SD=0.95). There was a main effect of mathematics achievement (β=-1.15, SE=.49, z(173)=-2.33, p<.05) such that children with higher levels of math achievement looked back less frequently at the target stimulus while writing. In contrast, children with higher levels of reading achievement looked more frequently at the target stimulus while writing (β=1.72, SE=0.56, z(173)=3.40, p<.01). Lastly, we found a main effect of numeral, such that relative to writing the number 1 (M=0.16, SD=0.37), children looked at the target stimulus significantly more for the numbers 4, 5, 8 and 9 (Ms=0.63-0.68, SDs=0.82-1.21, ps<.03).
Conclusion
Findings indicate that kindergarten children are only beginning to evidence automaticity when copying numbers. Kindergartners often look back at a digit while attempting to copy it, even though children with higher math, but not reading, achievement scores evidence fewer look-backs. Additionally, children encode some digits more easily than others, making fewer look-backs while copying. More broadly, results suggest that to enhance school readiness, children should be given direct practice with number writing to promote automaticity in this skill, thereby making more cognitive resources available to process the symbolic aspects of number.

Authors

• Destiny Stafford, Tulane University
  Presenting Author

• Emily Lewis, Tulane University
  Non-Presenting Author

• Emily Berlin, Tulane University
  Non-Presenting Author

• Jeffrey J Lockman, Tulane University
  Non-Presenting Author