A Meta-Analysis of Progressions in Theory-of-Mind Understandings

• In Event: ToM in Middle Childhood: New Directions and Link to Social Abilities

Abstract

Theory of mind (ToM) – the awareness of how mental states such as memories, beliefs, desires, and intentions govern self and others' behavior – is a cornerstone of social intelligence and satisfying social interaction. ToM develops rapidly during the preschool period as classically demonstrated via a single ToM milestone, understanding of false beliefs – mental states that decidedly diverge from the real state of affairs. However, focusing on a single task or achievement is limited, and it is now clear that ToM develops over many years in an extended progression of understandings. In 2004, Wellman and Liu pioneered a now often-used method for examining a vital set of these ToM progressions – a ToM Scale that assesses understanding of the diversity of people’s desires (diverse desire; DD), diversity of people’s belief (diverse belief; DB), access to knowledge (knowledge access; KA), mistaken ideas (false beliefs; FB), and the hiding of emotions (hidden emotion; HE). The performance patterns on the tasks define a Guttman scaling sequence, where it is rare for a child to pass a later step without passing the preceding ones. Longitudinal research shows that the cross-sectional sequences also reflect the progression individual children go through as they grow older. Further, the scale has been extended to include later-developing ToM understandings such as understanding non-literal language (NL; e.g., sarcasm), understanding interpretive mental stances, and understandings of conscious versus unconscious states of mind.
Accordingly, this ToM Scale has been translated into at least 15 non-English languages, used worldwide, including with children who experience lengthy ToM delays (i.e., with autism or severe deafness). However, a compelling synthesis of the data is missing to systemically summarize the commonality and specificity of the findings. Therefore, the meta-analysis we will report, which includes 151 studies, provides a quantitative review and integration of the now-numerous findings.
Briefly, consider several findings from the systematic results: typically developing children follow a consistent progression – DD-DB-KA-FB-HE-NL – extending into middle childhood. So do deaf children of deaf parents. However, deaf children of hearing parents show considerable delay extending into middle childhood, adolescence, and beyond. Most studies focus on English-speaking (e.g., US and Australia), Asian (e.g., China and Japan), and European children (e.g., German and Italian) children, but the comparative data also include studies from Indonesia, Iran, Turkey, Korea, Israel, South America, and India. Generally, children from “individualist” countries (e.g., US, Australia, Western Europe) follow the sequence noted above, whereas those from “collectivist” countries (e.g., China, Japan, Iran, Indonesia) follow an alternative sequence – DD-KA-DB-FB-HE-NL. That is, in cultures that emphasize communal knowledge, understanding knowledge access (KA) preceded understanding that people hold diverse beliefs (DB). In contrast, in cultures that highlight differences between the selves and opinions among individuals, understanding that people hold diverse beliefs came first developmentally.
Thus, our study provides a comprehensive summary of ToM development from preschool to middle childhood, including the culturally common and specific sequences that characterize this crucial social-emotional development.

Authors

• Chi-Lin Yu, University of Michigan - Ann Arbor
  Presenting Author

• Jean Anne Heng, University of Cambridge
  Non-Presenting Author

• Henry M. Wellman, University of Michigan
  Non-Presenting Author