Cross-Cultural Differences in American, Chinese, and Indian Mothers’ Socialization Goals with Toddlers: Temperament as Moderator

• In Event: Child Temperament: Implications for Parents and Parenting

Abstract

Socialization goals refer to desirable qualities that parents wish their children to possess, and they guide parenting practices and influence children’s development (Durgel et al., 2009). Cross-cultural differences in socialization goals have been widely reported (Harkness & Super, 1996). For instance, Keller et al. (2006) found that American mothers emphasized autonomous socialization goals more than Indian and Chinese mothers. Much research has indicated that children’s temperament is relevant to cultural beliefs and socialization goals (Kohnstamm, 1989). Parents’ socialization goals are often dynamic over children’s developmental course and negotiated in terms of children’s characteristics, especially child temperament (Sameroff, 2009; Ng et al., 2012). Parents typically encourage temperamental traits that align with cultural values (Keller et al., 2006). Child temperament can help explain some observed cross-cultural differences in mothers’ socialization goals (Gartstein et al., 1996; Jones et al., 2021). The purpose of the present study was to investigate differences in socialization goals among mothers of toddlers from three socio-cultural communities (New York City, US; Chennai, India; Qingdao, China), and whether such differences could be partially explained by mothers’ perceptions of their children’s temperament. We expected that Chinese and Indian mothers would share similar socialization goals, but they would differ from US mothers. Furthermore, we examined the moderating effect of child temperament on possible cross-cultural differences in mothers’ socialization goals.
This study included 131 mothers of 17-34-month-old toddlers (US: n = 37; India: n = 29; China: n = 65). Mothers reported child temperament using the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire (Putnan et al., 2006). They reported five aspects of socialization goals using two questionnaires. The Socialization Goals Questionnaire (Kärtner et al., 2010) measures socialization goals related to child autonomy, prosocial behavior, and obedience. The questionnaire developed by Ng et al. (2012) captures socialization goals related to self-enhancement and self-improvement.
Table 1 presents descriptive statistics. The results of ANOVAs showed that compared to Indian and Chinese mothers, US mothers were more likely to prioritize autonomy (F = 15.34, p < .001) and depreciate self-improvement (F = 21.19, p < .001). Unexpectedly, US mothers also endorsed obedience more than Chinese mothers (F = 66.95, p < .001). Compared with Indian mothers, Chinese mothers valued autonomy (F = 15.34, p < .001) and self-enhancement (F = 3.78, p < .05) more but considered obedience to be less important (F = 66.95, p < .001). We then tested the interaction effects between child temperament and culture, but very few significant interactions were found. Specifically, children’s higher levels of surgency were related to US and Indian mothers’ stronger preference for self-enhancement (US: p = .008; India: p = .007; see Figure 1); however, Chinese mothers had no significant preference for corresponding goals (p = .292). Besides, US mothers valued prosocial behaviors more when children demonstrated higher surgency (p = .032), but such relation did not apply to Chinese mothers (p = .168). The results suggest that child temperament matters in mothers’ construction of socialization goals, yet its role varies by cultural contexts.

Authors

• Yeqing Li, East China Normal University

• Zhen Zhang, East China Normal University
  Presenting Author

• Antje von Suchodoletz, New York University Abu Dhabi

• Lixin Ren, East China Normal University

• Florrie Fei-Yin Ng, Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK)

• Duo Yu, Qingdao Jinshengyuexin Psychological Counseling Services Co. Ltd.