An examination of Yutori reform in Japan using PISA data

• In Event: Examining mathematical achievement through international data-sets

Abstract

• Objectives or purposes of the paper

In the nineties, the Japanese education system was criticized for focusing heavily on standardized examinations and for producing graduates with strong basic academic skills but little creativity and independence. In response to these criticisms, in 2002, the Japanese Ministry of Education, Sports, Culture, and Technology (MEXT) implemented “yutori-kyoiku” or “relaxed education,” with one objective for students: to nurture their “ability to uncover problems, learn, and act independently in a rapidly changing society” (OECD, 2009, p. 173).

After the implementation of yutori kyoiku, the performance of 15-year-old Japanese students declined on the 2003 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) in mathematics and reading. Particularly, students reported very low mathematics self-efficacy and self-concept but high mathematics anxiety (Lee, 2011). The public grew concerned when students performed poorly on the 2006 PISA. Japan’s decline in international rankings sparked a national education debate (Takayama, 2008), prompting gradual changes to the yutori kyoiku reform but still developing student creativity.

The purpose of this study is to examine the change in Japanese students’ affects for learning and the association between the affective change and achievement after the yutori kyoiku reform by evaluating the effects of the reform through Japanese students’ performance on the PISA 2003 and the PISA 2012. Three affective constructs related to mathematics learning are examined: mathematics self-efficacy (M-SE), mathematics self-concept (M-SC), and mathematics anxiety (M-ANX). Mathematics performance is useful for gauging the primary aims of yutori kyoiku: problem-solving and independent thinking.

• Main perspective or theoretical/conceptual framework utilized

Drawing on the social cognitive theory (SCT) (Bandura, 1977), this paper aims to investigate whether Japanese students’ M-SE, M-SC, and M-ANX changed after the yutori kyoiku reform by comparing the PISA 2003 and the PISA 2012 results. The SCT posits that how people think and feel about themselves is related to how they act. The very core of the SCT is self-efficacy, a belief in one’s ability to perform tasks. This personal belief influences action, effort, perseverance, and realization of goals (Bandura, 1986). With regard to mathematics learning, self-efficacy is a strong mediator in how individuals engage in mathematics, ultimately influencing their achievement (Bandura, 2000). To be noted, anxiety is a key affective variable, impeding learning and performance and academic self-efficacy. Another related mediator of academic performance is self-concept, which refers to one’s perceived abilities within an academic domain. Self-concept is a past-oriented belief whereas self-efficacy reflects future oriented beliefs (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003).

• Analytical methods, research design, or modes of inquiry

Independent-samples t-test was used to evaluate the change in M-SE, M-SC, and M-ANX mean scores between PISA 2003 and PISA 2012. Multilevel modeling was employed to examine the association between mathematics achievement on PISA 2003 and PISA 2012, while controlling for student-level and school-level characteristics.

• Data sources or evidence

The analytic sample includes Japanese students who participated on the PISA 2003 and the PISA 2012. The final sample amounted to 3,921 for the PISA 2003 and 2,045 for the PISA 2012.

• Results and/or conclusions

On average, the PISA 2012 participating students reported significantly higher mean M-SE, M-SC, and M-ANX scores than the PISA 2003 cohort (p<.001). For the PISA 2003, a statistically significant, positive correlation between mathematics achievement and M-SC (p=.002) and M-SE (p<.001) was observed, even after adjusting for individual-level and school-level differences. Similar results were found on the 2012 PISA: M-SE (b=5.94, p<.001), and M-SC (b=2.96, p<.001). While M-ANX was not a significant predictor of mathematics achievement on PISA 2003, it was found to be negatively related to mathematic performance on PISA 2012 (p=.050).

The preliminary results show that Japanese students participating in PISA 2012 rated themselves significantly higher in M-SE and M-SC than their peers who participated in PISA 2003 (p<.001). This suggests that the yutori kyoiku reform might have achieved its goal of instilling the “zest of living” in students. Unfortunately, the 15-year-olds in 2012 also reported significantly higher anxiety levels than same-aged peers in 2003. Finally, positive association between mathematics affects and mathematics achievement were also found in 2003 and 2012.


• Significance of the study to the field of comparative or international education.

This study using PISA data on Japanese students affirms previous findings that used data from Japan. Importantly, this study highlights how an education reform that includes space and time for students’ creativity can positively impact not only academic skills, but also non-cognitive skills. More research is needed, however, to understand how to alleviate academic anxiety in students regardless of the type of education reform.

Authors

• Meiko Lin, Teachers College, Columbia University

• Dena Simmons, Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence