The Role of Early Childhood Education in Shaping Fourth-Grade Reading Achievement

• In Event: Foundational Literacy, Numeracy, and Competency Assessment

Proposal

Early childhood education (ECE) has become a key focus of global education reform from the late 20th century onward, driven by increasing recognition of its long-term developmental and socio-economic benefits (Wopitla, 2017; Bromley, 2024). High-quality ECE programs are consistently linked to improved academic achievement and broader cognitive, social, and emotional development (Fisher, 2005). Studies have highlighted substantial returns to ECE investments, including stronger educational outcomes, enhanced employability, and improved social cohesion—benefits amplified by the rapid brain development in early childhood (Cunha et al., 2006; Levin, 2011; Deming, 2022). Even in low-resource settings, ECE has gained traction as a pathway toward equitable and sustainable development (Bendini & Devercelli, 2022; Karoly, Kilburn, & Cannon, 2005). As this global consensus grows, comparing how different countries implement ECE policies offers important insight into how context shapes outcomes.
Within this global context, both Azerbaijan and Türkiye have significantly expanded their ECE systems to strengthen human capital and address socio-economic disparities. Azerbaijan’s non-compulsory framework includes nurseries (ages 0–3), kindergartens (ages 3–5), and preparatory classes (age 5–6), with initiatives such as the School Readiness Programme and Community-Based Early Learning driving access—particularly in rural areas. Since 2017, with support from UNICEF and other partners, over 850 community-based centers have been established, enabling approximately 16,000 children to participate in early learning (UNESCO, 2022). In Türkiye, reforms over the past decade—most notably the 2011 integration of the General Directorate of Pre-School and Primary Education under the Ministry of National Education—have improved governance and elevated ECE’s role in promoting school readiness and holistic development. These policy shifts are reflected in substantial increases in preprimary enrollment, particularly after 2015, underscoring a shared national commitment to expanding early learning opportunities. These efforts contributed to substantial increases in ECE enrollment over time .
Yet, while access to ECE has increased, questions remain about its impact on children's later academic success. Does ECE participation translate into measurable gains in foundational skills like reading? How do factors like gender or geography affect those benefits?
To explore these inquiries, this study uses data from the 2021 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) to examine how ECE participation in Azerbaijan and Türkiye relates to fourth grade reading achievement, as well as student attitudes and self-efficacy. The analysis is guided by three key research questions:
I. How does ECE participation affect fourth grade reading outcomes?
II. Do the benefits of ECE participation on reading outcomes differ by gender?
III. How do the effects of ECE participation on reading outcomes vary between rural and urban contexts?
This study contributes observational evidence on the relationship between ECE and reading achievement in two middle-income countries, using cross-sectional PIRLS data to explore broad associations rather than estimate causal effects. Although cross-sectional data do not support causal claims or track student development over time, they offer a practical and informative way to examine broad patterns - especially when longitudinal data are unavailable. Prior studies have acknowledged this limitation while still demonstrating the value of one-time assessments in generating meaningful insights about educational systems and early learning environments (Shafiq et al., 2018 and Yang et., al (2024)). Hence, the present analysis seeks to contribute to that literature, while recognizing the need for cautious interpretation.
Descriptive statistics reveal that in both countries, children who attended preschool were more likely to come from urban, higher-SES households with educated parents and literacy-rich environments. In Türkiye, 75% of students had some preschool experience; in Azerbaijan, this figure stood at 73%. Notably, access disparities were more pronounced in rural areas—especially in Azerbaijan, where some regions reported enrollment rates below 10%.
Multivariate OLS regression models show mixed but insightful results. In Türkiye, ECE participation was significantly and positively associated with higher reading scores. The effect persisted across all model specifications and was stronger among girls and students in urban areas. A dosage analysis revealed that two years of preschool yielded the highest gains in reading achievement, with diminishing returns observed at three years or more—a finding that echoes recent international evidence of a nonlinear, inverted U-shaped relationship between duration and impact.
In Azerbaijan, the association between ECE and reading scores was weaker and not statistically significant in the full sample. However, subgroup analyses revealed significant positive effects among urban students and girls, suggesting that the benefits of ECE may be contingent upon quality and contextual factors. Moreover, higher reading gains were observed among girls who engaged frequently in early literacy activities at home, pointing to the compounding effects of school and family environments.
To address endogeneity, the study implements IPW models based on estimated propensity scores. These causal estimates confirm the earlier findings. In Türkiye, both the average treatment effect (ATE) and the average treatment effect on the treated (ATET) were positive and statistically significant, with gains of 17–18 points in reading scores. In Azerbaijan, the ATE and ATET were smaller (around 7–8 points) and marginally significant, again underscoring the moderating influence of local conditions.
Despite these contributions, the study acknowledges limitations. Chief among them is the inability to make causal claims with high confidence due to the cross-sectional nature of the PIRLS data. Additionally, PIRLS lacks indicators for ECE or primary school quality, precludes information on initial reading proficiency, and does not fully capture early childhood health conditions. These limitations are mitigated, to an extent, by the use of a rich set of covariates and robustness checks, including bootstrapped errors and IPW.
In conclusion, this study highlights how ECE participation supports foundational reading skills, especially in emerging education systems. In Azerbaijan, where research on this topic is limited, the findings offer a starting point for more focused, field-specific studies. Collaboration with Turkish counterparts—given the strong cultural and linguistic ties—can further enrich future research and policy development.

Author

• Leyla Hasanova, University of Pittsburgh